As the Napoleonic Wars were drawing to a close in the second decade of the 19th century, the great powers of Europe — Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria — began planning for the postwar world. Austrian Prince Metternich proposed the idea of an international congress aimed at restoring order in Europe.
Prince Klemens von Metternich served as the Foreign Minister of the Habsburg Empire from 1809 until the Revolution of 1848. To many, he appeared as a champion of despotism, reactionary politics, and the police state.
The congress opened in September 1814, with delegations arriving in Vienna from all over Europe. Its immediate purpose was to ratify the decisions of the Treaty of Paris, achieve a balance of power in Europe, and prevent further conflict. From the Congress of Vienna emerged what became known as the Concert of Europe.
Main Participants in the Congress of Vienna
The leading figures at the Congress were British Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, and Russian Tsar Alexander I. All three shared a conservative, reactionary vision for post-Napoleonic Europe, preferring stability and the status quo over liberal progress.
The four dominant powers at the opening of the congress were:
Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia
However, thanks to the diplomatic skill of Prince Talleyrand, France eventually secured an equal voice alongside these powers.
Distribution of the Spoils
The goal was to prevent any one nation from gaining more than its fair share of territorial spoils, while maintaining a balance of regional interests. In reality, however, Russia received the lion’s share, establishing a dangerous foothold in Europe. From that time until the Crimean War (1854–1856), fear of Russian expansion became a central issue in European diplomacy.
The immediate concern at the Congress itself was that France might spark another European war. To prevent French expansion eastward, three buffer states were created on its borders. Additionally, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in Italy was strengthened, and Belgium (formerly known as the Austrian Netherlands) was united with the Netherlands.
The Holy Roman Empire, which Napoleon had reorganized into the Confederation of the Rhine, was replaced by the German Confederation — a loose association of 39 states dominated by Austria. Despite everything, France was treated generously in the Paris Treaties of 1814 and 1815:
Its 1790 borders were restored.
No occupation army was to remain after it paid 700 million francs in reparations to the Allies.
However, King Louis XVIII (1755–1824), under whom the monarchy was restored in France, was required to rule according to the Charter of 1814.
Europe’s Territorial Map After the Vienna Settlement
The aim of the Congress was not merely to restore old borders but to reshape the size and power of the major states so they could balance one another and maintain peace. Europe’s map was redrawn after the Vienna Settlement of 1815:
The Habsburg Empire received the Illyrian provinces and the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venice in exchange for giving up the Austrian Netherlands.
Sweden gained Norway from Denmark.
Russia retained Finland and took control of the new Kingdom of Poland.
Prussia kept the Polish region of Posen, gained nearly half of Saxony, and acquired part of the resource-rich Rhineland.
Britain consolidated its overseas empire and maritime routes to the Cape of Good Hope, securing control over Malta, the Ionian Islands, Ceylon, Mauritius, Tobago, Saint Lucia, and Heligoland.
Because of these overseas possessions, Britain gradually distanced itself from continental European politics during the 19th century.
A New Political Settlement
Alongside the territorial changes, the Congress considered a political settlement essential for lasting peace. The French Revolution was blamed for the upheavals and wars of the previous generation. The Congress of Vienna dismantled the Napoleonic world and sought to restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown.
The best way to ensure stability, it was believed, was to reinstate legitimate monarchs on their thrones. To prevent future unrest in Central Europe, the Congress recommended that the rulers of the German Confederation grant their subjects constitutions. However, most of these rulers ignored the recommendation later on.
To maintain the Vienna Settlement itself, the four great military powers — Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia — renewed their Quadruple Alliance, pledging to uphold the settlement by force if necessary, for 20 years. British Foreign Secretary Viscount Castlereagh, who held office from 1812 and was considered reactionary in Britain, was the first to view this alliance as essential to preserving Europe’s balance of power.
Despite his reputation, Castlereagh proved to be a liberal at the Congress, hoping to turn it into a diplomatic arena for peaceful change. The four powers agreed to hold regular congresses to maintain peace and resolve emerging disputes. However, the relative cooperation and harmony that characterized Vienna did not last in the four subsequent congresses held between 1818 and 1822.
In September 1815, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed the Holy Alliance, soon adopting the principle that states should intervene in the internal affairs of other European countries whenever stability was threatened — a principle Britain rejected.
Political Outcomes of the Congress of Vienna for Europe
The settlement reached at the Congress of Vienna shaped European political thought for the next generation. Continental powers committed themselves to maintaining the status quo they had established. They united to resist all liberal and nationalist revolutions seeking to limit monarchical power. With very few exceptions, they successfully suppressed all such uprisings — notably those of 1830 in France, Switzerland, and Belgium, where intervention was neither suitable nor in their collective interest.
The settlement also ignored nationalist sentiments when distributing territories and drawing borders, leading to unrest in Belgium and Poland and increasing instability in Italy and Germany. The Greek Revolution of 1821 was disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, encouraging other Balkan nations to demand independence and weakening Turkey — “the sick man of Europe.”
The Habsburgs added both Ukrainian and Italian nationalities to the already diverse populations under their rule. They viewed rising nationalism as a dangerous epidemic that could spread and destroy their empire. Metternich used his diplomatic skill at the Congress, his influence within the German Confederation, and his power across Italy to suppress nationalist movements everywhere.
His system extended from the Baltic to Sicily. Although the Congress of Vienna succeeded only superficially, it did manage to stabilize Europe and maintain peace for a considerable period.
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